Why Electric Vehicles May Not Be Sustainable for a Good Future: A Critical Evaluation

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) are widely promoted as a cornerstone of decarbonized transport, but several technological, environmental, social, and economic challenges undermine their sustainability when considered at scale. This paper critically evaluates the limits of battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) through lifecycle, material, supply-chain, grid-integration, and end-of-life lenses. We synthesize recent findings on battery raw-material extraction (lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite), manufacture and embedded emissions, land- and water-use impacts, recycling bottlenecks, and the socio-political costs of mining. We examine evidence that EV manufacturing currently entails substantially higher upfront embodied emissions than internal-combustion-engine (ICE) counterparts and that reductions in operational emissions depend heavily on rapid grid decarbonization—an uncertain and regionally variable prospect. Material availability, mining-related human-rights issues, and slow scaling of economically viable recycling create persistent supply-chain vulnerabilities. Moreover, rebound effects, vehicle-size inflation, and the environmental footprint of novel battery chemistries raise questions about whether EVs deliver net sustainability at global scale. We argue that without aggressive circular-economy policies, improved mining governance, realistic lifecycle accounting, and integrated demand-side strategies (modal shift, reduced vehicle kilometers), an EV-first policy risks locking societies into resource-intensive pathways that are incompatible with equitable, long-term sustainability. The paper concludes with policy recommendations to mitigate these risks and research priorities to close critical knowledge gaps.